Socrates

c. 470–399 BCE · Athens

First attested
399 BCEDialogues of Plato (Apology, Crito, Phaedo); Xenophon (Memorabilia).

Wisdom begins with admitting one's ignorance and fearlessly examining one's beliefs.

Athenian philosopher who wrote no texts, known through the dialogues of Plato and Xenophon. He practiced the elenchus (dialectical questioning) to examine unexamined assumptions, declared that the unexamined life is not worth living, and was sentenced to death by hemlock for impiety and corrupting the youth.

Light

Radical intellectual humility, moral courage, and clarity through inquiry.

Shadow

Intellectual arrogance masked as skepticism; irony that destroys without rebuilding.

Sources and verification2 sources · 1 link

Primary source

Scholarship

Linked entries

  • Gave rise toMarcus AureliusAttested

    Marcus Aurelius cites Socrates as a primary exemplar of self-discipline, moral courage, and indifference to public opinion.

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